Sudan’s Natural Wealth Under Siege: Who Controls the Oil, Gold and Farmland?

Sudan’s civil war, now in its third year, is a fierce contest between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF). The fighting has produced the world’s largest internal displacement crisis — more than 9.5 million people forced from their homes — and threatens widespread hunger.

Territorial control

The SAF controls much of the north and east, including the capital Khartoum, key cities along the Nile and the strategic Port Sudan on the Red Sea. The RSF has consolidated power across large parts of western Sudan, especially Darfur, after seizing el-Fasher following a prolonged siege. Control of territory is fluid but closely tied to access to the country’s resources and transport routes.

Three strategic sectors: oil, gold, agriculture

Exports and value: In 2023 Sudan’s recorded exports totaled about $5.09 billion. The leading categories were crude oil ($1.13bn), gold ($1.03bn), animal products ($902m), oilseeds ($709m, including $613m of sesame) and gum arabic ($141m).

Agriculture: Sudan’s agricultural heartland follows the Nile. The White and Blue Nile meet in Khartoum and flow northwards; the annual floods historically irrigated croplands concentrated between the rivers, notably the Gezira region. About 51.4% of the country is grazing or rangeland, mainly south of Khartoum. The northern edge of these rangelands forms the “gum arabic belt,” where acacia trees produce the valuable resin used in food, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Control of croplands and rangelands is split across forces and militias, affecting food production and livestock routes.

Oil: Oil has been Sudan’s primary revenue source. Production rose from ~200,000 barrels per day (bpd) in 2001 to nearly 500,000 bpd by 2010, then collapsed in 2011 after South Sudan’s secession removed most reserves. By 2023, U.S. Energy Information Administration data put Sudan’s output at about 70,000 bpd. Proven oil reserves were estimated at roughly 1.25 billion barrels (2024), with natural gas reserves near 3 trillion cubic feet, though gas production is negligible. Most oilfields lie in the south near the South Sudan border; many of these fields are now under RSF control. The downstream sector includes five refineries in central and northern Sudan: the Khartoum refinery (capacity ~100,000 bpd) and the Port Sudan refinery are reported to be under SAF control as of early 2025. Pipelines that carry crude to export terminals remain strategic assets and are contested in places.

Gold: Sudan is among Africa’s leading gold producers, with deposits in the northeast, central and southern regions. Eastern deposits tend to be held by the SAF, while central and southwestern goldfields are largely under RSF influence. Much extraction is artisanal and small-scale — an informal sector that employs hundreds of thousands and operates largely outside formal regulation. Since the conflict began in 2023, control of mines and trade routes has become a critical source of funding for both sides. Local reporting indicated gold output rose to about 64 tonnes in 2024 (up from 41.8 tonnes in 2022), producing an estimated $1.57bn in legal export revenue; however, an unquantified black-market trade continues. According to trade data, the United Arab Emirates accounted for more than 99% of recorded Sudanese gold exports in 2023.

Trade partners and markets

In 2023 roughly 80% of Sudan’s exports went to Asia, 11% to Europe and 8.5% to Africa. Top trading partners included the UAE (about $1.09bn, largely gold), China ($882m, mostly agricultural products), Saudi Arabia ($802m, mainly livestock), Malaysia ($470m, largely crude petroleum) and Egypt ($387m). These five buyers accounted for more than two-thirds of Sudan’s export value.

Scale and people

Sudan is the third-largest country in Africa at roughly 1.9 million sq km (718,000 sq miles). The 2024 population is estimated at about 50.5 million, with most people living along the Nile and in urban centres. Greater Khartoum houses around seven million people; other major cities include Nyala, el-Obeid, Port Sudan, Kassala and el-Fasher.

Why control of resources matters

Control of oilfields, gold mines, croplands, refineries and transport routes directly funds military operations and logistics. That makes natural resources strategic prizes: whoever secures them gains revenue, supply lines and bargaining power, prolonging the contest even as the humanitarian toll mounts.

Sources: United States Energy Information Administration; trade data and market analyses.